Vocabulary
What is Vocabulary?
The words which make up a language constitute its vocabulary. The Anglo-Saxons regarded vocabulary as a ‘word-hoard’ or a store of words which is to be owned and treasured. To the Chinese, however, it is a sea of words to be fished. Which of these two views do you prefer?
In using language to express ourselves and communicate with one another, we use words. The accuracy and clarity of our message depends on the words we choose. In looking at words as the basic tools for language, we can categorize them into two main groups: content words and function words.
1 Content Words
These are words with a specific meaning e.g. girl, chair. They may refer to a person, e.g. teacher; a thing, e.g. pencil; an action e.g. skipping; a quality e.g. sweet; or a state, e.g. un happy. These words carry meaning even when they are not used with other words, i.e. they have lexical meaning. Content words include mainly nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
2 Function words
These words have little meaning when they are used on their own. They, however, show grammatical relationships in and between sentences, i.e. they have grammatical meaning. Words such as the, but and over are function words. This group, therefore, includes categories such as articles, conjunctions and prepositions.
Vocabulary Development
The acquisition of words by learners is the end result of vocabulary development. Channel (1988) suggests that a new vocabulary item is acquired when the learner can identify its meaning in and out of context and is able to use it appropriately and naturally.
1 What does knowing a word mean?
To know a word fully, a student has to be aware of many features. A student needs to know what the word in its current context means, how it is similar to or different from other words with similar meanings; the other meanings it can have; it’s different grammatical forms; how the word can be used and the situations in which it can be used. To know the word run, for example, the learner needs to be aware of the following.
The word ‘run’ for example, means to move quickly on foot. It is related to other words with a similar meaning such as jog, race and dash. Depending on how it is used, it can have other meanings. Run can refer to a period of time, e.g. After a run of two years, the play closed.
It can also mean an enclosed space where fowls such as chickens are reared. The student will also need to know how a word changes in accordance with grammatical requirements. If it refers to the activity as a noun, the student will use the form running. Words can also be used in different ways. Run, for example, can be combined with other words to form phrasal verbs. Finally, the user will need to know the situations in which the word is used. All the meanings of a word and its uses need not, however, be taught at any one time. Use your discretion.
2 Factors influencing vocabulary development
A number of factors affect vocabulary development in learners. Research has shown that words learnt through active use are more likely to be remembered than words which have merely been heard or read. Repetition and regular use of such words are important. Four ten-minute sessions of vocabulary practice are more effective than a single forty-minute vocabulary lesson. Stevick (1976) suggest that the amount of intellectual and emotional effort put into the learning process by the learner is also important. Vocabulary practice therefore, must be stimulating and interesting.
3 Active and passive vocabulary
Speakers of a language may use words or vocabulary items actively or passively
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Words may be used actively when a person produces his own speech or writing
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Words are used passively in listening and reading. This refers to a person’s ability to understand the words used in the speech and writing of other people.
4 Active and passive use of words
A person can understand many more words than he can actively use. According to Richards et. al. (1985), a native speaker can have a passive vocabulary of up to 100,000 words but an actively vocabulary of between 10,000 words and 20,000 words. In foreign language learning, a person with an intermediate to upper intermediate level of proficiency may have an active vocabulary of between 3000 to 5000 words and a passive vocabulary ranging from 5000 to 10,000 words.
In language learning, the teacher has to decide which items are worth learning for active use and which items are useful for purposeful of recognition. When teaching vocabulary, therefore, we do not need to spend the same amount of time on all the words. To help students develop active vocabulary, the teacher may spend more time giving examples, asking questions and devising exercises for students to use the word. Passive vocabulary items may be taught quickly. For example, students may be encouraged to guess the meaning of a word from context. Students need to be made aware that they should not try to learn all the words that they come across. Rather, they should select items which are useful. Further, students are likely to acquire a word which they see as being personally relevant, whether or not the teacher decides to teach it.
Words and Meanings
We need to recognize a number of features about words and their meanings if we want to teach vocabulary effectively. Points below will discuss some important concepts related to words and their meanings.
1 Denotations
When we discuss the meanings of a word, we usually refer to its conceptual meaning, i.e. that part of the meaning that relates it to an object, person, place or phenomenon. This is its denotative meaning. For example, the denotation of the word house is a dwelling place-a building made for people to live in. This meaning remains in whatever context the word is used. The denotative meaning is generally regarded as the central or core meaning of a vocabulary item.
2 Connotations
Besides its denotative meaning, a word can have certain emotional or attitudinal overtones. Some words have positive or negative connotations while other words may be neutral. Consider the verbs plan and scheme which both denote making arrangements in advance. While plan has a positive connotation, the word scheme can have negative connotations.
Meaning may also vary according to person. The second type of connotative meaning involves items which differ in affective meaning depending on the speakers or listener’s attitudes, experiences and situation. Look at the word sea. Different people would associate different characteristics with it, e.g. vast, calm, unpredictable or threatening.
A third set of connotative meaning involve the socio-cultural associations a group of people might have regarding a lexical item. The colour red may have connotations of prosperity and good luck for a Chinese speaker, while to another speaker it may signal danger, aggression or anger. Connotative meanings therefore show people’s attitudes and emotions towards what the word or phrase refers to. This part of meaning is sometimes referred to as affective meaning.
3 Polysemy
A polysemous word has a single word form but two or more meanings. When we talk of the mouth of a cave, we refer to its opening. Mouth could also be in relation to the opening through which we take in our food or the place where a river joins the sea.
4 Homonymy
When words are written in the same way and sound alike but have different meanings, we refer to them as homonyms. The words well and ball, for example, has two different meanings in the following two sentences.
He hasn’t been well since he fell down the well
Why was Cinderella a bad football player? She ran away from the ball.
5 Homophones
Words that sound alike but are not spelt alike are called homophones. Blue and blew are homophones. They sound alike but have different spellings and meanings.
6 Homographs
Words may also be written the same way but are pronounced differently, e.g. lead, lead; desert, desert. Each of these words have a different meaning. Look at the following pair of sentences.
She had a red bow on her dress.
You must bow before the king.
These words are called homographs.In the English, therefore, the same word can have different meanings. When we ask what a word means, there may be more than one answer.